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20151118
! l& l6 U2 Q; W2 W+ G私以为可以将pdf正文前的多篇文章也加入词条,以完善词典的内容,并更好的使用词典。) {# M7 n9 a6 |4 }! d3 Y: H
1、Where English comes from
6 `: o) b1 m8 N3 }. RThe English language has existed for hundreds of years.
" f( p g, H3 a- k5 f$ b5 _: YMany words came into English from various European languages.
, }4 I4 w+ q' v% X- @For example, St. Augustine and other Latin-speaking
0 d$ y! q& W- Q& r9 \7 s6 p/ Z, cmissionaries to England used such words as bishop and/ ~( S# n7 i. v
priest. Latin was the language of scholarship and religion.
( x, I8 _9 G* @0 pWherever Latin scholars, missionaries, and government officials/ S/ K6 G. Y, U
exerted important influence, Latin words became
* J5 t1 K" U0 V% oknown. When the Scandinavians invaded and settled in Britain,
9 q! e+ d5 _+ g, bsome words beginning with sk- were adopted into English.
$ v; q. z+ c; Z, w1 V. ]$ o5 MFor example, skill, skirt, and sky. The Scandinavians* k( J! S, ]: P' _
also contributed important pronouns such as their, them,. _; E0 X5 K5 V
and they. Words of French origin include army, blue, chair,
* V: b* N; H Z2 u( ]dinner, government, jolly, mayor, paper, and towel. Balcony,
2 F& G0 D3 z Fpiano, and pizza come from Italy; fiesta and siesta,
. d, u' @1 ]( r' x3 { d9 e$ e/ Zfrom Spain; orchestra, from Greece; boomerang, from Australia;
: R; R+ c9 F# C {- jvodka, from Russia; and igloo, from the Eskimos.
4 ]$ z# N- f2 a English is always growing and changing. Words constantly0 O3 z1 w9 e$ y. j" R8 \
are being added and falling into disuse. Many words that9 [& ^: F8 `5 h, h! N
you hear, speak, and read today were not part of the language6 z/ H7 N5 q- Z* P* Y9 s: I: {* W
your grandparents used. Look in a dictionary published6 C8 P) J) ]. `: Y7 i
at that time and you will not find such words as astronaut,
& b; R0 r* F. q5 Cculture shock, miniskirt, rolamite, and microfiche.
* i( g( i$ o! t+ D% @Every time new inventions, scientific discoveries, art forms,
- Q. M8 O# u5 r7 Qor fashions appear that do not have names to identify them,
* r$ j c9 v9 k- f( r* Mnew words must be invented or old words given new applications,/ L: B/ T. p- s+ `: T
or taken from other languages.
9 A6 N$ z1 Q2 F2 [$ v& [$ U; B When words are not used, they become obsolete. Obsolete* B- R; D% V' i% Z5 e
words are included in the dictionary because they are
$ q; G/ F# |3 ?part of our history and our culture. You will want to know/ N3 x' }3 V. l
what they mean when you read them in old books or hear
1 |" [8 [9 x2 x4 W7 n1 _them used in plays written a long time ago. Before the automobile; ?7 L6 o$ t6 u( x
was a common form of transportation, people traveled
# I) |9 M' T/ d: z, o5 vin buggies drawn by horses. Now when you hear or
9 }3 n# m' F' t; W, v/ Tsee the word buggy you are inclined to think of something
+ Y( ?0 R4 F2 A8 \' V( Y6 bold-fashioned or insect-ridden., p3 F2 R R5 o( C6 ]8 w' B% z( z
Many words have changed their meanings. For example,
, n; I' r" y0 W7 B; J& \sly and crafty people were once described as "pretty." At
7 [& d; P+ B( P' Aone time, when people wanted to picture someone as stupid
: Y3 q- F/ ^. r# Xand ignorant they referred to that person as "nice." Today,; x3 i% v" T& e6 ]* ]
if someone tells us we are "nice" and "pretty," we feel flattered,* ^) \3 w2 A9 k% l: r; }$ f
not insulted.3 [: A) e8 q9 a% F& Z4 }
These are only a few of the ways in which language/ ^/ D; g4 L4 d* b
changes and grows. By knowing how words become part of
! H8 l; \& \. n( Va language, you discover important clues to social, political,2 m% P/ x0 @6 H! H8 o; O
and cultural changes that take place in the history of a
! `; r4 t3 Q3 c3 _8 _country using that language.
2 w* ^ r4 @1 U& g$ n+ Q7 {) R0 _ The story of how English originated is a fascinating one.
$ R2 i6 l$ }& }9 _2 ~+ h
' i2 c) ]+ a* _$ P- z% H9 X6 P' wHow English began
, \: o) l, a4 n: {8 A( C+ ZEnglish comes from a common ancestral language believed* Z J5 l) s% j: N
to have existed a very long time ago. It has been called
/ Q- t8 U* X( k8 h) r" PIndo-European. About 4,500 years ago, the people who% R1 w. F1 J( ?" J! z
spoke varying forms of this language split into groups that; C/ o% r6 H2 \& n" ?/ F' h
drifted into Europe and parts of Asia. Different speech communities
# |$ ?' S2 r( ^" ~* P0 n( cdeveloped within these widespread groups eventually
# @3 N+ O, e2 c- Igiving rise to several languages including Latin, from
* [* Q) T/ Z1 s8 t+ K5 v+ E/ e& a9 ~: gwhich many of the languages spoken in Europe today developed. P: L& `: f* R- i
One group of Indo-European languages is known as' D* `6 I6 J1 W0 g$ L
Germanic, and this is the primary parent language of English+ f" e4 i3 S6 Y- N+ b
and German.
+ C* S$ z* o* ?9 n Warrior-adventurers, who spoke Germanic, invaded what# r w. z% {" E7 v, _* ?& C$ K5 V
is now Great Britain about A.D. 450. The invaders—called% y5 G4 c" ^- w, f# i0 j' [/ X* s& C
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—all spoke similar dialects. The5 Y% e Z5 D5 [
people they conquered, known as Britons, spoke Celtic. The/ D2 W6 g) a: @5 b# |
Celtic language included Latin words because conquering
$ p" m5 T T' p, I! L& ?Roman troops occupied Britain from A.D. 43 until the 400's.
# \3 ?' ]5 v" E7 v" jThe troops had to return home to defend Rome against invading
* C0 Z1 J% J- n' F8 \armies. The Germanic tribes conquered Britain after
1 P% ]" q; @ G. o- ~% G: ]* h' L) ], sthe Romans left.
/ I0 O4 t, D0 ~. ^ y As the invading tribes took over and settled in Britain, the) c/ R* d& U! M& k$ E* v* N) _) K
Celtic languages gradually retreated. Since the Celtic people
* x0 u) Y6 x3 Cwere forced to communicate with their rulers, the history of# w3 u5 P. w; M, M
the English language begins with the take-over of Britain by7 e% V" `$ {7 a' W* z
the Germanic tribes. As a result, Celtic made only a small
, w/ m: Y1 i% vcontribution to the English vocabulary with words such as
7 {% |* F* L& B5 Bcrag and bin. However, many place names were adopted
. p& l) h$ M0 ?, d& [8 l) Tfrom the Celtic. Among them are Avon, Kent, London,
% Y, [, h7 O. v3 r6 i; J! qOuse, and Thames. Small groups of people living in Ireland,
" E5 G" Q1 ^6 q! iWales, and the Scottish Highlands still speak varieties of Celtic
2 ]6 v: |- l- |3 e0 osuch as Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, and recently
. l1 H+ s6 Q3 p4 S0 krevived Irish.0 n3 L; \& a$ U# u0 p) j
0 O4 e& ^8 C& G _Old English
1 `; F; Y D6 L6 nThe Angles and Saxons occupied a large part of Britain. The
; r- q& W4 d& kname of one of the former tribes eventually became the
1 ~- S4 K: \3 x/ Mname of the land they occupied, England. The Anglo-Saxon
' G9 x0 H9 A, [" O8 a+ Y3 O. m& D" dlanguage, now usually called Old English, became firmly established1 B" c: m" j e) ?# M
in Britain in the period from the A.D. 500's to 1066.
" h* K0 u- v4 o& I* e0 }3 D8 ^ Even as this happened, changes were taking place. Latinspeaking$ x# ?8 H- G4 y, |. V
Roman and Celtic missionaries under St. Augustine,6 I0 }0 Z0 m7 y# l( s8 ^/ c z
began spreading Christianity in Britain. The introduction of, W7 ?! A G. q1 A6 U
Christianity exerted a great impact on the English language., V& i+ i2 d. u& x
Religion brought with it many new ideas and customs. And6 x# j1 Q4 B" Q& k
Christianity used Latin. In their attempt to identify and deal& ]7 e: c8 K1 G2 y" E% V7 n
with all these new ideas and customs, the Anglo-Saxons did( V* e& l# D% z# D; A
not hesitate to borrow from Latin the special vocabulary
0 H/ V4 I" g, Q5 t. V( k' ^needed for the new religious life. Among the words taken* ^8 }, p; u& `$ P- ^" B3 O
from Church Latin which still survive are:2 ~3 K, k" S3 C2 m9 ~9 Q
7 V5 w1 i) s. ?0 F, {3 t" Q" ?2 s0 t
Latin Old English Modern English
5 C* n" Q; P5 J! {$ X: o, H6 _; o, i5 aabbatis abbod abbot
2 E4 w9 _6 D- k7 S* fcandela candel candle; [: Z0 w& J* Y$ c
altare altar altar
& P+ ?: A# z1 G" U1 e2 Camen amen amen; \2 w/ C. Y3 b* Q" a$ s+ q, e- `) a& Q
apostolus apostol apostle
+ h- {/ \3 ^1 v3 G3 u% U
# [! r+ g8 {/ z However, users of Old English did not borrow as heavily
8 i6 G5 u5 o# mfrom Latin and other languages in this period as they did8 H5 |8 V9 E) n# y- L
later when there was greater communication with the Continent.' C; P# E4 v u* A0 K, k) b6 A3 X
Sometimes they changed the meanings of native6 G. \5 ?. k F, A- x# D* o( ~! q- c
words. The word for Easter (eastron) originally was the( _% J, B3 S" ~
name for the spring festival honoring the goddess of dawn.. R! [( W r) x2 s a
Ceol (Yule), the name of the festival held to celebrate the8 b5 I, z7 N1 a" P' B: Z4 e3 L; \
passing of the shortest day of the year, came to denote
& n+ }% K6 r L0 Q4 U2 G/ JChristmas.4 }2 ^2 O+ M1 W* M' @! N
Native ingenuity was shown in creating new words by
3 s$ \! Y5 y8 z6 u- r& Y" Hcombining two native words in much the same way as we; J0 X+ q @, f" c6 u
now combine words such as space and worthy to form1 R0 }9 T& T" c" z/ E9 F3 T
spaceworthy. Old English words such as Icececraft (leechcraft),( [# R+ d* R* d$ d
meaning medicine, and handboc (handbook), meaning4 d$ N, H- {+ u3 E4 I
manual, illustrate this practice.* T. _, u1 q5 `0 e. z0 D- ^* D: z9 i1 R
The growth of the Old English vocabulary during this$ z: Z k8 A1 q5 S( ]
period of language history reflects the growth of English culture.* j: r$ [ w% T" O0 `( l2 m
Because of the Church's influence, scholarship was encouraged/ X! S! `, T' V
and Britain began its rise as one of the intellectual
1 K' o3 X& A; v1 C0 f2 cleaders of Europe.
* `6 u9 `% ` z0 v4 n! j Toward the end of the 700's, hardy Vikings from Denmark,- G7 | t# u5 l0 ~
Norway, and Sweden began invading and settling in, ?: j* W- J1 r9 {% E% k# \3 H( C
many parts of Britain. By the 1000's, a Danish king ruled4 }7 m f) X1 O: v k' r( ^1 h( v
Britain. As a result of the invasions from the Danish peninsula,% g# C/ [; R U/ B J }3 w, v
many Scandinavian words became part of English.* j1 y9 M( u& O) x7 w; s* S
These did not identify new ideas and objects. They were everyday
/ `1 s# `* [5 ?. o/ h2 [words for which the English already had terms and expressions.6 \; l! ?! G$ W( x. v, G
Why did the Scandinavian words exist side by side with
1 e9 l; v6 s0 _5 d, u: ~# C9 nEnglish words instead of replacing them? The Scandinavian2 V2 ^5 T$ c- [) Z A% Y6 t& v
invaders were Germanic people like the Anglo-Saxons. Their
% T% h* y' m, acultures were similar and their languages enough alike so
; ^, ^) r7 p* P, n5 ^! o3 vthat they understood one another. Many words were exactly1 C3 J' j+ V! d% @3 ~, {
alike, such as father, husband, house, life, man, mother,
- ?% H {" Z2 R7 O X3 B7 f5 k: r) t1 zsummer, wife, and winter. Other words were so much alike. w1 P; @5 B; ?; X# v
they were used interchangeably.: k5 n& N: Q) m! ^( Q
Although the Scandinavians and the English fought each [ \5 ^1 I- f& b' N- Y1 T
other, many Scandinavians settled peacefully in Britain, married
5 a- u# g% E; s5 G1 K, KEnglish women, and raised families. Often both languages
- s3 ]) m3 w) ^- ewere spoken in the same household. Where different; K/ [! O2 O$ }3 D; L1 v
words existed for the same thing, the Old English word usually
3 B0 P0 N- o* i4 f% @% ewon out, but there were some exceptions. The results of
& N/ J ^0 ?4 {' {) S' H e& a8 ?1 `this absorption of language through close contact is seen in
" K3 ~# b3 i0 othe histories of such words from Scandinavia as skirt, skill,) k( l% m4 ^8 u& [& [# g5 @, q
window, leg, gasp, birth, glitter, they, their, them, egg.
5 q# z& G0 ?- o$ @/ l9 a Scholars believe that at least 900 words of Scandinavian
: `* `) l" Q# d* Korigin have survived in modern Standard English. Many
6 j! R& H+ t2 b9 o/ F: wmore are still in use in Great Britain. They are found in dialects
: V, A z& j* b* b/ q: v5 r8 E. q. nspoken in regions heavily settled by the Swedes,2 h8 I* H% ?# u2 ?$ V
Danes, and Norse in those early days.% |0 h* ?% W2 k7 e, `
; G* {5 N5 b; K; o3 {* c7 u& p
Middle English
3 p6 A) s* H' u! |3 U$ K/ \Old English began to undergo a great change when the Normans# `2 M8 g" m, y! B9 p
invaded England from France in 1066. Until then, in! g2 C5 Z3 i: s- U
spite of the Latin brought in by the introduction of Christianity,
* ?1 _: ?) k( @the influence on English was overwhelmingly Germanic.9 z# Z% |. r4 m$ e
The Normans began a process that brought many$ t) K8 o7 b1 z8 L& l
French words into the English language. They replaced the- X% q& i" q/ ]+ g4 R I9 ^& ]
English as rulers, chief landholders, and church officials and
; O& e( S! Z; J4 K& U: vNorman-French became the language of the ruling class.
, W3 O7 m# p9 ZHowever, the common people continued to speak English.
$ [' s) ?5 }7 Y% v( J: u2 ] Norman-French and Old,English existed side by side until
8 I" d/ `4 k: V- c; y1 P& Mpolitical and social changes began to favor the use of English
' h$ x/ |5 @3 W( R. H4 m. I! Uby all classes. The Normans lost control of their territory in2 v" p" f# Q& F$ r* ?: @9 S
France in the early 1200's. Confined to Britain, the Normans
' C+ k) N. F* M5 hbegan to learn English. Eventually, it replaced French as the1 h* |9 l: R2 G
language of the ruling class, the schools, and the courts. By
$ g2 V# Z8 o( n+ {0 Qthe end of what is known as the Middle English period. g$ f; o: U# e
(1100-1500), English again had established itself as the major
1 y+ U9 `# L& N3 A/ G0 `language in Britain.
0 b6 k/ i* q* `0 ] During this period, English continued to borrow words
. U% v; w& w, a( U% ofrom French and from Latin. In the English we now speak,5 r) F- m1 g a0 }+ l! {6 N) T' e s
more than half of the words in common use come from
6 G" E9 f, ^7 `8 _these two sources. Many words from Old English and Anglo-
1 w* I0 w" |! Y% a6 ~/ }French that are roughly synonymous exist side by side today.( P O% e2 b5 G: f" [2 [; `, g7 t- Z
For example, dress and clothes, aid and help, royal
' s5 m$ F) W* f0 `8 P) Iand kingly. In addition, trade between Britain and the Low
9 F7 B6 _' B* G7 L+ r6 bCountries, especially Holland, accounts for the inclusion of
( x$ z8 C/ E2 @, b2 b) Fperhaps as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in the English
) k N7 s; w3 Blanguage. Some examples are: boom (at the bottom of a
5 u# E7 H' R5 nsail), deck, easel, etch, freight, furlough, and stoop (porch4 N* r: g, l9 y. z% t% e% b8 U; ]$ @
or entrance).8 K- |& ^* K. D6 l2 E
Before the Norman invasion, a great change in English
& Y3 e2 U" ?9 @( }4 d: {3 ^% @) S# ywas beginning to shift grammatical and pronunciation patterns.6 y* q- N) y& b7 | h
However, the coming of the Normans accelerated
0 {2 R" G: A9 q2 `( d' T# m( i B: athese changes. Everyday use, growth of dialects, and contact
- p. w$ z8 r: t2 K- Zwith foreign languages caused inflections (word endings) to
+ D0 H2 r' H8 Q8 Q# qlose their distinctive meanings and their usefulness. Instead! f6 p/ V4 b1 i1 y# ~
of depending on word endings to give exact meaning to a
$ |1 c @9 s# F) j$ b" l, ysentence, as had been the case in Old English, word order/ Z1 n5 f& X: @
became the important indicator.
1 [0 e+ S( X+ h$ I, u# d ? In Old English, for example, To his J>eowum se feeder cwaeoK' p& d- R, H. q' m4 K6 }
meaning "The father said to his servants" or "To his servants
) O7 P4 z' o* z& \% b+ w) cthe father said," would have the same meaning no matter
* y2 M' b2 Z- }2 fhow the words were placed in the sentence. The -urn
$ Y: W: R: @7 I3 I! R; a. |ending on beow(um) would always indicate who was being
$ w3 J- F5 q0 \0 s. U& F6 nspoken to. In modern English, if we shift word order to0 Z7 K0 X; ]7 R3 v* Z" Y `, f
make the sentence read " His servants said to the father,"$ d7 p* Q; Q: y. F) V3 C5 C3 M; Z7 N' i
the meaning would be quite different.
9 }. w3 N! |$ L' M English still retains some inflections, including plurals and
: Q! O0 w5 l1 Q" [* b+ R+ Z" {the verb endings. But Middle English had far fewer inflections
, g$ e0 S4 D' ]6 x, j8 J; U3 bthan Old English.. @7 c+ K, v+ |! F% z
7 A, ?- q0 o- {4 p
Modern English
3 h; j" r X2 G! M) oThe Modern English period, starting about 1500, has been+ q& A \/ P+ b- `5 ?+ M9 _
concerned for the most part with regulating and standardizing
7 Q! h/ Z y, c- d! k$ W4 Cthe language. But attempts to fix English into a permanent
6 |, J* [1 B- X2 V7 X/ J1 u: l$ bform failed. The way a language is used gives it life,5 J- q) c( z/ b/ L# [+ c
and usage produces change.
6 Z+ {9 U& }4 Y. h3 H1 t) m However, fixing a language and freezing its usages into a" ~ x8 c0 p2 T8 `2 V9 D
form that tolerates no change is different from trying to
c3 C* R! C! T: E( l2 {' h1 Hstandardize its spelling so that communication between inhabitants Z5 U' m; \3 N2 c: Z4 y. ^
of various regions of the country is easy and effective.8 A, l: t4 U" X: d0 ]8 y' r
Several factors contributed to establishing Standard English- ]7 ^# Z' o) V" i0 P: k2 x* C
spelling and some forms of usage and many of the traits that
$ X2 E: s6 N5 p" g+ x! [& u: oexist in modern English. These factors included the introduction
6 O+ n% j- `6 Y6 I" n; Gof the printing press into England in 1477 by William
. t5 H4 X+ [) y, o a! R, NCaxton, the revival of interest in literature, and the growth of( } P( e+ J% R1 ~$ I. R; c
popular education.2 j7 x0 }5 r5 }, q* r0 f5 D6 r6 ~$ h( ?
The need for standardization was recognized as early as
[, }7 Z% {2 Fthe mid-1300's. From that time, the London dialect (East1 S( } |& j/ }2 X0 q
Midland) was gradually adopted from the four main dialects0 a2 w9 U- D' l& j
in existence (Northern, East and West Midland, and Southern): }( Z9 ?6 e8 g# i- N
as the basis for Standard English. The choice was made
/ c- y3 l/ I P& r. H/ [- Kbecause the London dialect was the language of contracts+ w! m( a4 G/ }
and commerce and the speech of the ruling court. All official* J6 W% C5 {' N" y% \+ u
documents originating there were written in the London
J' |, }, c+ Y2 E6 _% fdialect. Furthermore, the translation of the Book of Common9 L: \/ Y: a( }+ M! P1 J' @, u4 ^
Prayer and the King James version of the Bible became tremendous& G) b) ]) A$ F8 X7 M
forces for elevated English.
0 {/ E& u; Q& Q Before Caxton, literary works were written for the most5 L) z; r: f/ g7 i2 t. C
part in the dialect of the author. Spoken dialects continued' Y( f; t: {8 Q/ ^
for a long time and, indeed, still exist. But, by the end of the
( H: L$ L- L) I8 I1400's, the London dialect was becoming accepted literary
" K! \2 h5 p2 `3 M O# Musage.
6 p, e1 H' p+ j! E0 t" A& M& n By the early part of the 1600's, more than 20,000 different
& G) q4 i3 t1 z2 W" N2 kworks were printed in England alone. Books were available3 C+ \0 g: l) k2 h- l/ @
to all who could read and afford them. The printed( d5 q* A7 r0 k/ {4 N* X4 U
word helped to make spelling more uniform. Up until that( c4 ]9 X7 m' ?: Q3 h6 v
time spelling usually varied from region to region.
* r! F9 Y/ i. e, I* x From the 1500's through the 1700's, many writers experimented
# r6 [( l( C9 S; t8 P0 w+ `with words. Over 10,000 new words entered the
) `' j! S( J7 Q, u6 E! c: lEnglish language. Many of these were taken from Latin and
, l# [5 o) x5 \% Z) H& ?* w) qGreek by scholars who wanted to replace the forms earlier
: F f* }! t7 Y# Qadopted from French. Translators and writers believed the
& X) y& g2 p1 c! A& x, Xlanguage was rough, unpolished, and incapable of doing
3 {+ M5 ?% j6 z/ I9 C1 P- Lwhat Latin and Greek had done, and what Italian could do.
9 j" A) a/ d; G# o# G: Q0 [! ZThey set about enlarging the vocabulary, chiefly by translating
& g; E. Q4 p6 ~2 Jwords from Greek and Latin. More than twenty-five per9 R* \2 q0 A2 p1 O% _( ]4 F
cent of modern English words come almost directly from
8 @- _4 j3 j8 A8 Gclassical languages. Very often we have two words that go c8 X2 p. ~0 ?7 {0 O( {# C4 M
back to the same Latin original—one brought in by the Normans,
! m% U( Z4 f# @5 k1 j' cand one taken in directly. For example, words such as
% S1 n% N! `: _5 kpaint and picture, certainty and certitude. The adoption of) j7 K0 u+ Q/ s1 M
Greek and Latin forms became so abundant and so outrageous
+ `9 U7 u* \- c1 v; i3 wthat many of these borrowings were dubbed "inkhorn
( h% m" K3 M# v: l: ^terms" because of their bookishness. However, some of
# J' K9 t- H/ athese terms were useful and necessary and they have survived4 }6 B$ u! ]: W
to this day. Among them are conduct, dexterity, extinguish,; I: r" S1 i' R7 G2 d
scientific, and spurious.
6 m* Z/ l+ h' p2 ^" q- Z2 u: f9 f. w7 G
American and British English$ Y7 c( M1 u) `; u2 j
After the British colonized America, the English language
% t9 H* Y$ u7 l: yused by Americans began to change from that in the old
& s4 X" F! i$ g8 T$ vcountry. The biggest factor in this change involved the need
2 X9 x2 U, x" Z2 D# Nto create or adopt words to identify unfamiliar objects. Animals,: f# k; s( @# v* P$ ^6 a% ]
trees, food, and the physical features of the land were& }# o9 x" ?! c2 L, d! ^
different. The Americans took words from the Indians to
( z7 Y: \! ?2 n6 P8 o2 J8 ^identify a raccoon, a tomahawk, a papoose, and a wigwam., l/ c3 e/ K8 o* ?
When there were no appropriate words, they did what their
- D( j9 L3 [1 sancestors had done. They combined words and gave them
' a, d" h$ S: Rnew meanings. The combination of garter and snake produced
* ~& F& e) c" F$ M. G, _. ka word to describe a crawling creature they had
. G) l8 R5 M/ anever seen before. They named the sweet, edible root of a
( i1 h+ l! A* Rvine belonging to the morning-glory family, sweet potato.- _7 V; h" h+ L9 Y- i7 T: h& I
They adapted from the Narraganset Indians the name for the
: S( V2 p% m; v8 X8 C `" w. r3 Lfruit of a plant of the gourd family, the squash.
, A" S( G2 Z& c8 g& X The growth of American nationalism led to a desire for
1 c/ m ]4 p$ Y, R, Q7 ?cultural as well as political independence from the mother
* k2 y" @6 X1 m' }7 q0 _5 b' Zcountry. This, too, influenced American English, as in conscious }. x1 s2 D" t n
attempts to reform spelling so that in time, musick6 v, N3 U- I! @% A, `4 L B8 ]- M
became music, and labour became labor. New ideas in the
& V3 g" j. L, W: `( K3 x+ f7 b5 _* Zarts and sciences and the coming to America of people from
: X- S7 B; J {many different countries had a powerful effect on American
8 t" F& J5 m1 D9 d8 N/ Z: ]! t* }0 gEnglish.7 l6 Y( i( z. G ^" q ?
Changes have not been so extensive that we speak a new
" L/ Z! F) V {% k$ i; R8 W p! U2 k wlanguage. Many Americans may not know that when an
3 v) b( o' m% D4 `1 MEnglishman says fitment he means an alteration, and that; _, I! U3 V- T- l/ X1 @" Y1 {* W
the British goods wagon is the American freight car. But, for
+ D/ }! i. d1 t: f8 {* ?) r% ^" | u. \1 rthe most part, Americans and Britons communicate easily
$ U9 Y s% g' @- Vbecause grammatical and phonetic patterns have not
- j+ p) d O0 l" }3 lchanged, though many words or lexical content are different.. m& Z. g- }8 j+ X: n5 n
The gap between American and British English has
3 |& s6 \3 v' g* [0 R* m1 Ybecome smaller in recent times, especially with the great increases6 ]. { z6 ?: ?! {! O; e
in the ease of transportation and communication.5 i) ~& k5 s; r, A! F) I
Neither the Americans nor the British have any qualms2 m r% r& M5 o
about appropriating words from other languages when they1 p4 M* V) o- y8 A
express concepts better than native words can. The British
- j& I7 M' V$ p( z! Uhave taken American words such as telephone, jazz, and' y$ \# T. k' z+ q
typewriter. Americans take words from many languages.7 }3 M& E7 a, `$ E$ ^
English has also changed in other countries where it is
* Y3 o9 z& g) l, Yused. Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders, and others
' h# @4 ^0 G: F/ W thave adapted English to fit their own needs. Although all, I+ S w6 ?3 E& _. U3 b+ @
English-speaking people can generally understand each
0 X# `& c. X: s" N3 Hother, each English-speaking country has developed distinctive( B5 ?% Z- B, f2 A# u: x% ~
ways of using the language. For example, New Zealanders3 x6 V) P7 G0 A7 L
refer to a section (a building lot in a city), Australians to
4 m! Y/ ^( d4 {8 |4 Ba mob (a group of animals), and Canadians to a chesterfield
7 k7 z- W% a$ ~(an overstuffed sofa)., l7 z7 P7 B# T
As long as travel and trade exist between nations, as long
4 {: k( t) ]6 Las large groups of people continue to settle in countries {$ g% K1 G3 h- [+ N1 L: M* f( C
other than their native lands, and as long as the sciences
9 f$ b0 w" x& P7 {; Y/ Wand the arts progress, new ideas, new words, and new usages
! {) I/ ?2 l3 j5 s+ Bof words will continue to keep language changing and
! E. S2 V8 ~; H" G1 |growing. |
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